liver cirrhosis

Importance Metabolic dysfunction–associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) includes a range of liver conditions, progressing from isolated steatosis (characterized by fat accumulation in the liver without inflammation) to metabolic dysfunction–associated steatohepatitis (MASH), which involves fat accumulation and inflammation in the liver. The presence of MASLD is associated with increased morbidity and mortality due to liver-related complications, hepatocellular carcinoma, cardiovascular disease, and certain extrahepatic cancers.

Observations The most common chronic liver disease worldwide, MASLD affects approximately 30% to 40% of the general adult population globally (with varying prevalence across continents), including approximately 60% to 70% of individuals with type 2 diabetes and approximately 70% to 80% of those with obesity. It is typically diagnosed based on an ultrasonographic finding of hepatic steatosis, along with at least 1 of 5 features of the metabolic syndrome (abdominal overweight or obesity, prediabetes or type 2 diabetes, hypertension, elevated level of plasma triglycerides, and low level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) for women who consume less than 140 g/wk of alcohol (<2 standard drinks/d) and for men who consume less than 210 g/wk (<3 standard drinks/d) and have no other known causes of steatosis such as use of a particular medication (eg, corticosteroids, tamoxifen, or methotrexate), hepatitis C, or iron overload. Other risk factors for MASLD include older age (≥50 years) and male sex (male:female ratio approximately 2). The Fibrosis-4 index (a scoring system incorporating age, serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, and platelet count) and vibration-controlled transient elastography (a noninvasive imaging technique) are commonly used to stage hepatic fibrosis in patients with MASLD. Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death, followed by certain extrahepatic cancers (primarily gastrointestinal, breast, and gynecologic cancer) and liver-related complications, including cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation (ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, or variceal bleeding), and hepatocellular carcinoma. First-line treatment of MASLD involves behavioral modifications (including hypocaloric low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets, physical exercise, and avoidance of alcohol) and management of type 2 diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Bariatric surgery should be considered for patients with MASLD and a body mass index greater than 35. Resmetirom (a liver-directed, thyroid hormone receptor β-selective agonist) and subcutaneous semaglutide (a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist) are conditionally approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of adults with MASH who have moderate to advanced fibrosis.

Conclusions A highly prevalent condition among adults worldwide, MASLD is associated with liver-related complications, hepatocellular carcinoma, cardiovascular disease, and certain extrahepatic cancers. First-line treatment includes behavioral modifications, including a weight-reducing diet, physical exercise, and avoidance of alcohol. Resmetirom and semaglutide are conditionally FDA-approved medications for the treatment of adults with MASH and moderate to advanced fibrosis.

Objectives. To review the association between malnutrition and clinical outcomes among hospitalized patients, evaluate effectiveness of measurement tools for malnutrition on clinical outcomes, and assess effectiveness of hospital-initiated interventions for patients diagnosed with malnutrition.

Data sources. We searched electronic databases (Embase®, MEDLINE®, PubMed®, and the Cochrane Library) from January 1, 2000, to June 3, 2021. We hand-searched reference lists of relevant studies and searched for unpublished studies in ClinicalTrials.gov.

Review methods. Using predefined criteria and dual review, we selected (1) existing systematic reviews (SRs) to assess the association between malnutrition and clinical outcomes, (2) randomized and non-randomized studies to evaluate the effectiveness of malnutrition tools on clinical outcomes, and (3) randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to assess effectiveness of hospital-initiated treatments for malnutrition. Clinical outcomes of interest included mortality, length of stay, 30-day readmission, quality of life, functional status, activities of daily living, hospital acquired conditions, wound healing, and discharge disposition. When appropriate, we conducted meta-analysis to quantitatively summarize study findings; otherwise, data were narratively synthesized. When available, we used pooled estimates from existing SRs to determine the association between malnutrition and clinical outcomes, and assessed the strength of evidence.

Results. Six existing SRs (including 43 unique studies) provided evidence on the association between malnutrition and clinical outcomes. Low to moderate strength of evidence (SOE) showed an association between malnutrition and increased hospital mortality and prolonged hospital length of stay. This association was observed across patients hospitalized for an acute medical event requiring intensive care unit care, heart failure, and cirrhosis. Literature searches found no studies that met inclusion criteria and assessed effectiveness of measurement tools. The primary reason studies did not meet inclusion criteria is because they lacked an appropriate control group. Moderate SOE from 11 RCTs found that hospital-initiated malnutrition interventions likely reduce mortality compared with usual care among hospitalized patients diagnosed with malnutrition. Low SOE indicated that hospital-initiated malnutrition interventions may also improve quality of life compared to usual care.

Conclusions. Evidence shows an association between malnutrition and increased mortality and prolonged length of hospital stay among hospitalized patients identified as malnourished. However, the strength of this association varied depending on patient population and tool used to identify malnutrition. Evidence indicates malnutrition-focused hospital-initiated interventions likely reduce mortality and may improve quality of life compared to usual care among patients diagnosed with malnutrition. Research is needed to assess the clinical utility of measurement tools for malnutrition.